A Comparative Study of Discourse Markers: The Case of three English Applied Linguistic Texts with their Farsi Translations

A Comparative Study of Discourse Markers: The Case of three English Applied Linguistic Texts with their Farsi Translations

Bahram Behin[1]

Shahid Madani University of Azarbaijan, Tabriz, Iran

Gholamreza Abedini bonab

 Bonab Branch,  Islamic Azad University, Bonab, Iran

Mahtaj Chehreh

Tabriz Branch,  Islamic Azad University,Tabriz, Iran

This research was an attempt to find the relationship between English discourse markers and their Farsi translations. It was conducted in order to find out whether DMs translations completely demonstrate source texts orientation and to what extent DMs translations are functionally appropriate compared to the original text? Six instruments were used. Three of them were the original English books and the other three were their translations. Ten pages from each original book were randomly selected. Then they were compared to their translations by the researcher and two translation teachers according to Farahzad's (1992) scale. The results of the study showed that there is a high degree of relationship between English DMs and their Persian counterparts; however, there is not a 1:1 translation about DMs. It can be also said that Persian translations are, functionally and almost totally, appropriate, compared to the original texts.

Keywords: Connective markers, Cohesion markers, Pragmatic markers, Cue phrases

In discourse analysis, a discourse marker is a word or phrase that marks a boundary in a discourse. Many linguists have defined DMs on their own accord. As a result, definitions for DMs are quite different from each other. However, Fraser (1999:946-950) defines discourse markers as a pragmatic class, lexical expressions drawn primarily from the syntactic classes of conjunctions, adverbials, and prepositional phrases. With certain exceptions, they signal a relationship between the interpretation of the segment they introduce, S2, and the prior segment, S1. They have a core meaning which is procedural, not conceptual, and their more specific interpretation is negotiated by the context, both linguistic and conceptual. It has become clear that an important property of DMs is their flexibility and multi functionality, and one of the problems that led to the current study was disability of some students in distinguishing the exact intention of the writers when they use some complicated DMs like in any event, alternatively, nevertheless, franklyspeaking, ultimately, conversely,so and so, etc. It is equally clear that DMs need to be analyzed from many different perspectives. Because a DM is multifunctional, context dependent, and realizable in many forms, it is sometimes hard to identify, classify, and distinguish from the subject matter. Also, there seems to be little agreement on what to call this phenomenon. This study investigates DMs and how they are dealt with in translation. It will focus on the value of the functionality of DMs within applied linguistic texts. The rationale for this study is that the knowledge of discourse markers is helpful in developing language abilities, and lack of it leads to a weak, awkward performance in all language skills. The knowledge of DMs leads to more effective, efficient speaking and listening, writing and reading/ interpreting, and critical thinking. This knowledge is also important for literature teachers because by analyzing them, writing teachers can learn new rhetorical devices for persuasion. Similarly, it is of benefit for reading teachers because it provides benefits for readers: sources for ideas, summaries of thought process, organization of texts, transitions, relation of part to the whole, involvement with and support for the author who cares deeply about the text and the reader, and involvement with the text. This study is also intended to help translators and translation students to know more about the occurrence of some language phenomena of languages understanding in translation so that they can be aware of them in decision making, paraphrasing, and contribute a model of translation study. Since DMs are a functional, rather than lexical category, they cannot be translated based on the meaning of the word. Therefore, some other method for translating them must be found. DMs must be understood in terms of their function within a discourse, so the pragmatic value, rather than the lexical meaning of the word, is translated.

Functions of DMs

 It has been frequently observed that discourse markers tend to be multifunctional. DMs come from all different categories of speech. Some of them are imperative verb forms (look!), others are conjunctions (and, but) or filler words (uhh...), etc. These formally identical counterparts are not used as markers, nor do they contribute to the propositional content of the utterance. This shows that when a discourse marker is used, it no longer carries the lexical meaning of the original word. Many discourse markers have a real lexical meaning, which is not the same as the DM functionality of the word. Thus, a translator must understand the difference and strive to translate not just the lexical meaning, but the conversational impact of the DM phrase or discourse. Most researchers agree that the use of DMs facilitates the readers' task on the writers' utterances. Writers use text connectors to guide readers through making the text more cohensive. They refer to items, particularly conjunctions that help readers to interpret pragmatic connection between ideas by signaling additive, resultative, contrastive, and temporal relations in the writers' thinking. The frequent use of text connectors in English texts can be a sign of a writer- responsible rhetoric. That is, an English writer provides statements and clues in the texts so that the reader can piece together the logic that binds the discourse together.  There are two basic frameworks which look at DMs from different perspectives but eventually come to very similar conclusions: Coherence Theory and Relevance Theory. The first group includes researchers who adopt a coherence-based account. The main figures of this group are Schiffrin (1987), Fraser (1988,1990,1999,2004), Redeker (1990), Zwicky (1985) and Giora (1997, 1998). The second includes the researchers who base their study and analysis of DMs on Sperber and Wilson’s (1993) relevance theory. This group includes Blakemore (1987, 1992, 2002), Regina Blass (1990), Corrine Iten(1998), and Sperber and Wilson (1993). Coherence proponents argue that DMs are linguistic elements that contribute to the coherence of discourse by encoding cohesive relationships between discourse units. Relevance theorists argue that DMs encode cognitive (procedural) information which controls the relevance relations between discourse units by constraining the choice of contextual information under which an utterance is relevant.                                   

Fraser's Model as the Original Texts Framework

This study draws on one of the coherence-based approaches to DMs, namely Fraser's. Fraser (1999, and 2004) proposes a comprehensive functional model for DMs. There are four reasons that show why I have selected coherence-based approach (Fraser’s works) as my framework: (1) lexical devices were the most frequently used in these texts, followed by conjunctions and reference devices. (2) Fraser’s work relies almost only on written discourse and my research is related to written discourse (3) this model offers a theory of DMs to show the relevance of this theory to students, academic and language teachers. (4) it offers a more comprehensive categorization of  DMs suitable for the present study. The main categories are:

Translation Studies

Translation in a very general and non–technical sense is the transfer of meaning from one language to another. Some scholars like Savory (1957) believe that translating is an art, not a science. The process of translating was traditionally described as an "art"(Savory, 1957), and a "craft" (Jacobsen, 1958), and later, as a "science". Even some other theorists consider it "in between", i.e.,neither a "creative art" nor an "imitative art" (Frenz, 1961).

Types of Translation

"Absolute translation" is a kind of translation in which the whole of ST is transferred into TL, with no alteration to the content or the form of the original document.  Clearly, there are constraints on this type of translation, and if the “quantity of information” and “quality of communication” are to be retained in this way, there can be no technical or linguistic variation from the original text, and all terminology must be exactly as in ST, Gouadec (1989:28). “Adaptation” is traditionally used to refer to any TT in which a particularly free translation strategy has been adopted. Nida & Taber (1969/1982: 134) equated adaptation with cultural translation; thus, for them-who are writing about Bible translation, adaptation cannot be considered faithful.  Rado (1979: 192) characterized adaptation not as ‘real’ translation at all.  Nord (1991: 29-30) viewed adaptation as a relative quantity reflecting a translation’s skopos; according to her, any translation will be characterized by the relative proportion (or percentage) of adaptation which it contains. Approaching the subject from a different angle, Bassnett (1980/1991: 78-79) writing about literary translation, observes that much time and ink has been wasted ‘attempting to differentiate between translations, versions, adaptations and the establishment of a hierarchy of ‘correctness’ between these categories’; she argues that the reason for this is that the text has been perceived as ‘an object that should only produce a single invariant reading’, so that ‘any deviation’ on the part of the reader/translator will be judged as a transgression’. Like Bassnett, Toury (1995: 31) also views the phenomenon form a non–normative perspective; he thus sees prescriptive comments like those cited above - examples of ‘a priori, and hence non – cultural and historical’ distinctions which can be imposed on translation. Another descriptive approach, this time concerned with how literary systems develop, sees adaptation simply as one of a number of different types of rewriting. Vinay and Darbelnet (1958: 46-47 /1995: 31) also use ‘adaptation’ to refer to one of seven translation procedures. Adaptation is described as a type of oblique translation, which means that it does not rely on the existence of structural and conceptual parallels between SL and TL. House (1977: 188) introduces two types of translation models known as “covert and overt translation”. The purpose of covert translation is to produce a TT which is “as immediately and “originally” relevant as it is for the source language addressees".  The second model of translation stated by House (1997: 189) is known as “overt translation”. According to her model, some STs have “independent status” in the source culture. This means that they are in some way inextricably linked to the community and culture, being specifically directed at SL addressees. In order to translate such STs appropriately, it is necessary to produce an overt translation, or in which “the target addressees are quite “overtly” not being directly addressed”. Consequently, in the production of such a TT no attempt is made to produce a “second original”: an overt translation “must overtly be translation” (1997: 189). Hatim & Mason (1990: 3) brought forth another approach in translation which is known as “communicative translation”. This type of translation touches on any approach which views translation as a “communicative process which takes place within a social context”. Obviously, all approaches will to some extent consider translation as communication; however, as so-called communicative translation will typically be generally oriented towards the needs of the TL reader or recipient. Thus, for example, a translator who is translating communicatively will treat ST as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units, and will be concerned to preserve ST’s original function and to produce its effect on the new audience. In other words, a communicative translation is one which contrasts with, for example, interlinear translation, literal translation or word-for-word translation in that it treats the ST wording as merely one of a number of factors which need to be born in mind by the translator.

Translation Quality Assessment

Translation assessment is usually subjective, not objective. But this subjective approach cannot be used by the teacher of translation who has to evaluate and score students' work on the basis of concrete criteria during a course and at the finals. Nord (1991) assumes that assessment is a matter of grading errors, and she suggests a hierarchy of errors dependent on the text function. In translation quality, it is important to know what good translation is and what the criteria are to say that one target text is good translation compared to another bad or poor one. We should first know what the good test for translation quality assessment is. The good test should be reliable, valid, objective and practical.

Farahzad's Translation Quality Assessment

Farahzad proposes two models for testing translation: limited-response and controlled free-response. Farahzad (1992: 274) mentions that in controlled free-response when examinees are to translate a text, their choice of words, the style of discourse they adapt, the grammatical and lexical adjustments they make, and the syntactic patterns they employ are all bound to the source text, which thus controls their response. According to Farahzad (ibid), as far as scoring method is concerned, two main features should be checked for each unit of translation, namely accuracy and appropriateness. She presupposes a careful examination of the target language translation. The target text must be read two times, first to check the accuracy and appropriateness, then for cohesion and style. In checking for accuracy and appropriateness, the sentence and clause should be the unit of translation.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Q1- Do DMs translations into Persian completely demonstrate source texts orientation?

Q2- To what extent are DMs translations, functionally, appropriate compared to the original texts?

Based on the above-mentioned research questions, two null hypotheses were formed as the following:

H01: DMs translations into Persian do not completely demonstrate source                              texts orientation.

 H02: DMs translations functionally are not totally appropriate, compared to the original texts.

Method

Instrumentation

Six books were used in this study. Three of them were the original English books and the other three were their translations. The selected original books were The Study of Language written by George Yule translated by Ali Bahrami; Principles of Language Learning and Teaching by H. Douglas Brown translated by Mansour Fahim; and Developing Second Language Skills: Theory and Practice by Kenneth Chastain translated by Mahmud Noormohammadi.

Procedure

Ten pages from each original book were randomly selected. First the discourse markers of the original texts were identified and classified according to Fraser's model; then they were introduced to translation teachers who were the evaluators of the translated texts, by the researcher. After their occurances in the original texts were compared to their translations, the translated texts were evaluated by the three experienced teachers (the researcher and two translation teachers) for their reliability according to Farahzad's (1992) scale.

Data Collection

Six applied linguistics books were selected (three of them were the originals and three were their translations). After we selected the texts and compared them with their translations, the statistical data for analyzing the results of this research were provided. Thus, the results of these assessments were the data of the study.

Data Analysis

In this part, the translators will be examined in order to find out how, and to what extent, they have translated the DMs of the original texts appropriately.The data that we will be working on relates to the sentences of both the original and translated texts. We will use the pattern discovered in these translations in order to find out the attention that had to be given them in translation, and the difference between them in meaning within a discourse, which must be considered.  In doing so, the data analysis was performed. The data were transferred to the data base and a data sheet was extracted. Finally, the results were compared to reach a conclusion. Following are the texts:

The Study of Language by George Yule, Translated by Ali Bahrami

They are usually treated as part of pictorial art.

این تصویرها بخشی از هنر تصویری شناخته شده‌اند.

Usually is a kind of elaborative marker. It functions as a discourse adverbial which emphasizes the way that most often happens. But it has not been translated at all.

When some of the 'pictures' came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictogram.

ولی همین که برخی تصاویر به صورت پایدار برای نمایاندن انگاره‌های خاصی به کار رفتند، می‌توانیم این محصول را به عنوان صورتی از نوشتار تصویری، یا تصویرنگار توصیف کرد

When has been translated as a kind of contrastive marker. However, its function in the original text is to show a logical consequence. Therefore, the translation of this DM does not show the original text message.

We can be more confident that the symbol is probably being used to represent words in a language.

خاطر جمع‌تر می‌شویم که آن نماد برای نمایاندن کلمات در یک زبان مورد استفاده قرارمی گیرد.    

Probably is a kind of elaborative marker. It is a kind of discourse adverbial which shows the level of possibility of something happening .This DM has been omitted in the translated text. Thus, the translated text does not give the same sense of the original text message.

The first to appear is usually the –ing form in expressions such as cat sitting and mommy reading book.

اولین تکواژ تصریفی که در گفتار کودک ظاهر می شود صورت  -ing در عباراتی مانند                   momy reading book  و                                                                  cat sitting

Usually is a kind of elaborative marker in the original text. It functions in the original text as a frequency adverb. But this DM has not been translated at all.

However, they do typically precede the appearance of the –ed inflection.

-ed با وجود این عموما" آنها جلوتراز ظاهر شدن تکواژ تصریفی    

ظاهر می شوند.

Typically is a kind of elaborative marker in the original text. It functions in this sentence as a discourse adverbial which shows all the characteristics that you would expect from the stated person or thing. It has been translated as "generally"  in this sentence. Thus, the translation of this DM does not show the original text message.

 One child, specifically asked to repeat what she heard.

به کودکی که گفته شده بود تا هر چیزی را که به او می گویند تکرار کند.

Specifically is a kind of elaborative marker. It functions as a discourse adverbial is that it shows one thing and not others. However, it has not been translated in this sentence. Thus, the translated text does not show the original text message.

In the selected ten pages of the original book there were 188 DMs;

• 10 of DMs in translated text (5.5%) did not show the original text message.
•  12 of DMs (6.5%) were omitted in translation.
• 88%  of  DMs were translated accurately   

      Figure 1 shows the statistics.

Principles of Language Learning and Teaching by H.D.Brown Translated by Mansoor Fahim

Chomsky (1965) similarly claimed the existence of innate properties of language to explain the child's mastery of a native language in such a short time despite the highly abstract nature of the rules of language.

چامسکی (1965) وجود خصوصیات فطری زبان را مطرح کرد تا مهارک کودک را در زبان مادریش در مدت زمان کوتاه وعلی‌رغم ماهیت شدیداً انتزاعی قوانین زبانی توضیح دهد.

Similarly is a kind of elaborative marker. It shows the similarities of something to the related part and when things look or are the same. Here it has not been translated at all. So, the translation of this DM does not show the original text message.

Then children will often perceive another connection, the regular-ed suffix attached to a verb, and start using the word goed .

اغلب با مشاهده پیوند دیگری یعنی وجود پسوند "-ed" در افعال با قاعده کلمه "goed" را به کار می‌برد.                                           

Then is a kind of contrast. It functions as a logical consequence that shows the result of something. However, in the translated text this DM has been omitted.Thus, the translation does not give the same sense of the original text message.

The construction of a number of potential properties of Universal Grammar, through which we can better understand not just language acquisition but the nature of human language in general.

ساختار تعدادی از خصیصه‌های بالقوه دستور زبان جهانی که از طریق آنها می‌توانیم تنها فراگیری زبان که ماهیت زبان‌های بیشتری را به طور اعم بهتر درک کنیم.                       

But is a kind of contrastive marker. It shows the concession and counter argument. The translation of this DM does not show the original text message. So, it is functionally inappropriate.

Researchers expanded the LAD notion by positing a system of universal linguistic rules that went well beyond what was originally proposed for the LAD.

محققان ایده‌ی ابزار فراگیری زبان (LAD) را با تجسم یک سیستم «قواعد زبان  جهانی» که به مراتب فراتر از آنچه که به صورت ابزار فراگیری زبان بود شرح و بسط دادند.

originally is a kind of temporal marker. It is a kind of discourse adverbial that shows the earliest form of something. But it has not been translated in this sentence. Therefore, the translated text does not show the original text message.

A simple analogy to music may further illustrate this complex notion.

شاید این پدیده پیچیده با قیاسی ساده با موسیقی روشن شود.

Further is a kind of elaborative marker. Its function is to emphasize on a greater distance or degree; at a more advanced level. But it has not been translated in this sentence. So the translated text does not show the original text message.

In the selected ten pages of the original book there were 151 DMs;

•  8 of DMs in translated text (5.5%) did not show the original text message.
• 10 of DMs (6.5%) were omitted in translation.
•  88% of DMs were translated accurately.
     Figure 2 shows the statistics

Developing Second Language Skills by Chastain Translated by Mamud Noormohammadi

One initial step is to discuss with them the concept of learning strategies and to examine the differences between those strategies followed by successful and unsuccessful students

قدم اولیه بحث درباره‌ی مفهوم فنون یادگیری و سنجیدن تفاوت‌های بین فنون اعمال شده با زبان‌آموزان موفق و ناموفق می باشد.   

With is a kind of elaborative marker. Its function is focusing and linking that shows the presence of a person or thing. In this example it has not been translated at all.

In fact, one of the most frustrating situations with which teachers have to deal is that of a bright student who is receiving good grades in all other subjects but doing poorly in the language class.

به طور کلی یکی از موقعیت‌های ناامیدکننده‌ای که مدرسین باید به آن‌ها فایق آیند آن است که یک زبان‌آموز دارای استعداد درخشان که در تمام موضوعات درسی نمرات عالی دریافت می‌کند در کلاس زبان ممکن است کارآیی چندانی نداشته باشد.

In fact is kind of elaborative marker. It functions to show other person's expectation. This DM has been translated "as a whole". The translation of this DM differs from its function in the original text. So, it does not show the original text message.

But is a kind of contrastive marker. It shows the concession and counter argument. The translation of this DM does not show any contrast. So, it does not ,functionally, give the same sense of the original text message.

Language is closely associated with personal identity and belonging.

زبان دقیقاً با هویت و تعلق فردی همراه است.

Closely is a kind of elaborative marker. Its function is to show the way that is directly connected or has a strong relationship. It has been translated as "accurately" which shows the whole extent and relationship. So, the equivalent for this DM seems to lack the same sense of the original text message.

Language teachers often use the word reading to refer to two entirely different processes.

مدرسین زبان اغلب کلمه  "reading" را برای اشاره به دو فرآیند متفاوت به کار می برند.

Entirely is a kind of elaborative marker. It emphasizes the extent which is the whole or complete, with nothing missing. This DM has not been translated at all. It is, functionally, inappropriate and does not give the same sense as the original text message.

     In the selected ten pages of the original book there were 163 DMs;

• 10 of DMs in translated text (6%) did not show the original text message.
• 20 of DMs (12.25%) were omitted in translation.
• 81.75% of DMs were translated accurately.
    Figure 3 shows the statistics

Results and Discussion

In order to find the answer to the first research question, Do DMs translations into Persian completely demonstrate source text orientations?, the statistical analysis which was conducted on the basis of translated texts evaluation shows that about 90% of DMs were translated accurately. It was concluded that there is a significant relationship between the DMs of English language and their translation in the Persian language. This result indicates that the translation of DMs is strongly associated with their source formation.Although it was concluded that there is a significant relationship between DMs of the source text and the translated text, we cannot say that there is a 1:1 translation about DMs. As Shäffner (1998: 4) believes the textual profile of the target text is determined by its function, and whether this is or is not similar to the textual profile of the source text can only be established through systematic translatorial analysis. The translator, as an expert communicator, is at the crucial center of a long chain of communication from the original initiator to the ultimate receiver of the message, and is thus situated within the wider social context.

In order to find the answer to the second research question, To what extent are DMs translations functionally appropriate, compared to the original texts?, although there is a significant relationship between DMs of the source text and the translated text, we cannot say that all of the DMs of the source texts have been translated totally and accurately. Reiss (2000: 11) believes that a translation may sound natural and read like ‘an original’ in the target language, but it may not read like ‘the original’ in the source language. It was concluded that both languages have their own DMs which are separate from the propositional content of the sentences that are detachable and have core meanings. One cannot expect to do research in this area to any degree of subtlety unless the researcher is the native speaker of the language being examined and the data is naturally occurring discourse. This means the native speakers of a language must develop an emic analysis based on naturally occurring discourse meaningful to the native speakers of that language. Let us assume that we have such an emic analysis of Lalong the lines of English analysis that now exists and that we do not contest the quality of analysis. We still cannot consider a complete meaningful comparison, since the term of analysis in each case English and L are language specific. For example in English there is a set of contrastive discourse markers (e.g but, conversely, however, in contrast, rather, still, yet). But there is no priori reason to assume that L will have a similar set of markers, all of which signal the same sort of contrastiveness that we find in English. What needs to be done (as in the case for all comparative work), is to develop an etic framework within which the concept for all languages can be accounted for, much as has been done in contemporary phonology, only then will it be possible to make a meaningful comparison of English and L in the area of discourse markers. Developing this etic framework in the pragmatic area is no mean feat as anyone who has attempted it will be attested. It is,however, necessary if you are to make progress in understanding how a language is compared in pragmatic area and more practically if we are to inform language teaching materials with accurate information about the use of DMs in the new language. So DMs must be carefully considered when doing a translation. A bad or poor translation will feel wooden in the recipient language. If they are well considered they create a translation with a strong original style, including aspects of both the recipient language and the previous language. They must be translated in a variety of ways, taking into account context and the original text itself. According to Bazzanella (1999),"The elimination of discourse markers does not affect the semantic level of speech; however, in paraphrasing, the emotional and interactive value of discourse is lost". Although some DMs can be translated based on their lexical value, others have a variety of uses or language specific uses to which a translator must be sensitive.

The Authors

Bahram Behin got his PhD in English Literature in Australia. He is a Professor of English and an academic member in the English department of Azarbaijan University of Shahid Madani. He has been teaching at undergraduate and graduate levels in the areas of English literature, sociolinguistics, advanced writing and research. He has presented research papers in various national and international conferences. His area of interest is applied linguistics and literature.

Gholamreza Abedini bonab received his M.A in English Language Teaching from Islamic Azad University of Maragheh. He got his B.A in the field of English Language High School Teacher. He has presented at different national conferences on ELT. Currently, he is teaching English in Bonab Islamic Azad University. His area of interest is applied linguistics and discourse analysis.

Mahtaj Chehreh received her M.A in TEFL from Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, in 1991. She is a member of academic staff in the English Department of Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch. She has served in different executive posts, and currently, is the vice –dean of the Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages. She has attended some national conferences on ELT. Her area of interest is Grammar and Writing.

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